Feminism And Its Impact On Society - 1763 Words

As a white female, I have experienced very little discrimination in my lifetime thus far because of my racial orientation. But, it has become very evident in our society today that many people do not live in the same state of mind, or living situation that I do. A sense of superiority plays a big role in the act of defining individuals, or rather perceiving another life to amount of lesser value than yours. A numerous amount of other individuals have been victimized for what they had no control over, whether it be their identified race or gender. However, there are two specific beliefs that have influenced my life specifically, Feminism and Catholicism. With the most recent presidential election, many issues had arisen involving both candidates, Hillary Clinton and Donald Trump, along with their followers. There were also many stereotypes that carried a heavy weight on voters that caused conflict when asked who they had decided to cast their vote for. The most familiar stereotype connected to Clinton’s campaign was Feminism because she had both gone further than any previous female candidate had in any election and because of her strong position on abortion. This assumption is inaccurately placed among the half of the nation that had voted for Hillary Clinton because there were many other contributing factors within her campaign that supported her candidacy and popularity among voters. The stereotype associated with citizens who had voted for Trump is the racial beliefs ofShow MoreRelatedFeminism And Its Impact On Society1301 Words   |  6 Pagesâ€Å"Gender is so pervasive that in our society we assume it is bred into our genes† (Kirk and Okazawa-Rey, 2010, p.64). Coming into this Women’s Studies course my first goal was to pass the class and move onto the next semester without processing much of the information. By keeping an open mind I have been introduced to some glaring problems in our world that affect nearly half of us in some way or form. When I heard the word feminist two months ago my first reaction was a woman who exaggerated maleRead MoreImpact Of Feminism On Individuals Within Society1587 Words   |  7 PagesImpact To analyze the impact the three waves of feminism had on individuals within society, three interviews were conducted with women from different generations. The first interview was with Roberta, a 74-year-old woman who has been married for almost 55 years and has always defined herself first-and-foremost as a mother. She held a few odd jobs before and after she had kids in the home, but worked as a retail salesperson, a bank teller, and a school secretary. The second interviewee was Amy, aRead MoreFeminism And Social, Political, And All Other Rights Of Women1565 Words   |  7 PagesAccording to the website Dictionary.com feminism is â€Å"the doctrine advocating social, political, and all other rights of women equal to those of men.† While that statement is not necessarily wrong, it is awfully vague. The reason this statement is so vague is, according to many researchers, because feminism is an incredibly complex concept with many different interpretations. Susan Hekman (20 13), for example, interprets feminism to be a radical movement that challenges the very fundament of modernismRead MoreAnalysis Of The Book Theories Of International Politics And Zombies 1419 Words   |  6 PagesDrezner explores the theoretical impact a zombie apocalypse would have on international relations. In his exploration of ideas, Drezner analyzes the approaches of different types of feminism disciplines to a zombie apocalypse. The two feminist ideas he explores are liberal feminism and post structuralist feminism. Drezner however, ignores the idea of a radical feminist approach in a critical time such as a zombie apocalypse. As an important discipline and idea around feminism, Drezner’s lack of acknowledgementRead More Feminist Approaches to Social Work1641 Words   |  7 Pagessocial work in today’s society. It will first look at the different types of feminism that are present in society. It will then trace and highlight the emergence of feminism in socie ty. This essay will then delve deeper into the different types of approaches that were taken on by feminists within the field of social work. It will discuss what effect these approaches had on society especially women. According to Hooks (2000) as cited in Considine and Dukelow (2009:141) â€Å"Feminism is a movement to endRead MoreThe Rise Of Social Media And Its Impact On The Feminism Movement Essay1542 Words   |  7 Pages Media Research Literature Review The rise of Social Media and its impact on the Feminism Movement Abstract: The new media Internet, social media platforms, has been an increasingly popular tool for feminists to promote the feminism movement. With the broad reach of the internet and social media, this has led to a wider awareness of the feminist movement. The broad reach of the internet and social media however has also open the female gender to various levels of objectificationRead MoreFeminism : The First Wave Of Feminism1267 Words   |  6 PagesFeminism is a movement calling for social change, holding to a belief that women are oppressed by American society due to patriarchy’s inherent sexism. This social movement explained quite simply started in the 19th century when women fought for the right to vote, sought to improve workplace conditions for women as well as increase working opportunities. From this initial movement, called first wave feminism, stemmed other waves that though somewhere in the same vein, they held many differing goalsRead MoreSocial Construction And Its Impa ct On Society Essay1578 Words   |  7 Pagesand historically constructed in a society. In other words, this is when the value and meanings are tied to concepts such as feminity, masculinity, race, class and gender. Hence, this same values and meanings of such concepts change and impact the society we live in. Furthermore, the idea of a social construct is significant in many various ways. For example, social construct helps us understand about feminity and masculinity on a social platform to which society predict and attaches certain characteristicsRead MoreMedia s Influence On Gender Relations And Sexuality1230 Words   |  5 Pagesconsiderable impact on the society, its cultural norms and values, including the development of gender-related biases and stereotypes which were accepted and promoted by media and this trend persists today making mass media a powerful tool that determines, to a significant extent, gender relations and perception as well as representation of sexuality in the modern media and society. Traditionally, media had a considerable impact on the society and socialization of individuals. Today, the impact of massRead MoreEssay on The Feminist Movement and Domestic Violence651 Words   |  3 PagesFeminism has not changed today, but its focus has changed. Many women today have good education and employment opportunities just like men, as the early feminist fought for them. Now, after getting all these, men are now discriminating them and at times abusing them in order to undermine their hard work and potentiality. Men are doing all they can to undermine the success women have been able to acquired, however, today’s feminism is struggling to protect women and girls from domestic violence, sexual

Personal Narrative My Pet Turtle - 875 Words

I chose to observe my pet turtle, Ted, who I caught in the creek last summer. I did learn one thing from observing him. He does not do much of anything at all. While observing him I focused on four things about him. Those four things are the five senses how he tasted. No way am I going to taste my turtle. I began with the observing the appearance of Ted. He is about the size of a hockey puck, and is round like one. His main color is green like the color of a forest green colored pencil. Its almost like the green of extremely deep water. He also has lighter yellow green color on him. This green reminds me of a neon green sign. It is very bright. These two greens make a pattern all over his body. The pattern reminds me of a zebra or tiger the way it goes across his shell, and on his feet and tail. My favorite part of Ted is his head. His head is dark green like the green on his body, but it doesn’t have a pattern like on his shell. He has black beady eyes, and little holes for his ears. Behind both ears he has bright red spots about the size of the end that you push on a pen to make the ink end come out. The red is like the red on a coke can. . He has a hook on the end of his mouth to help him catch things to eat, and it makes him look like he has an overbite. The only other part of his body you can see is his feet and tale, because the rest is covered by his shell. His feet are dark and light green striped similar to his shell, but he has claws like on a lizard. His tale isShow MoreRelatedMarketing Plan-Pet Sitting8101 Words   |  33 Pages 1 Marketing Plan Proposal – Vicki’s Pet Care Services Galore Vicki VanDreel Ottawa University MARKETING PLAN 2 Marketing Plan Proposal-Rationale The student writer is offering a marketing plan involving a new for profit Pet Care service. From late 2006 to 2009 I began a private consulting businessRead MoreBefore I Came To The Rca And To London, I Worked As A Textile4965 Words   |  20 PagesKorea. My business was relatively small and I enjoyed making bespoke textiles for my customers. Over time, I got to know my customers well, and tried to base my designs on this personal knowledge. I wanted the ties to be more than just mere physical objects; instead I wanted to imbue them with an emotional attachment that reflected the relationship between me and my customers and my knowledge of their lives and personalities. I began talking to my customers and noticed that – unconsciously – my designsRead More Biography of Edgar Allan Poe Essay11890 Words   |  48 Pages a local schoolmaster. There is every evidence that his early years of childhood were spent in happy and comfortable surroundings. Mrs. Allan and her maiden sister, Nancy Valentine, who resided in the same household, were peculiarly fond of their pet. He seems, indeed, to have been somewhat overdressed and spoiled as a very little boy, a propensity on the part of the women which the foster-father tried to offset by occasional but probably welltimed severity. In 1815 the family sailed for EnglandRead Morepreschool Essay46149 Words   |  185 Pageshis hand across the paint). †¢ A child who is visually impaired describes his art in sensory terms that relate to his experience: for example, â€Å"This __________ feels smooth.† †¢ When working on a collage, communicates, â€Å"I need more flowers for my picture.† 1.2 Create marks with crayons, paints, and chalk and then identify them; mold and build with dough and clay and then identify them. 1.2 Begin to plan art and show increasing care and persistence in completing it. Examples Read MoreExploring Corporate Strategy - Case164366 Words   |  658 Pagesstrongly associated with recreational drugs. By the early 1990s, drug-dealing in its most ugly sense had become part of the dance culture. Palumbo recalled: When I came into this business, with my bonuses and my nice City suits, I was completely naà ¯ve. Just a joke. I found that every Friday and Saturday night my door was taking  £30,000 and the security team was making  £40,000 on Ecstasy. It happens everywhere in the UK leisure business. There are all these fat bastards running chains of discos and

Labor Force (Reconstruction and Civil War) Free Essays

Those who lived through the Civil War and Reconstruction period recognized that the nation had passed through perhaps the single most significant transformative period in its history. Technology and Labor unions had a profound effect on Industrial workers in the nineteenth century. As technology advanced, it forced workers into monotonous positions that led them to form labor unions to fight for changes in their work. We will write a custom essay sample on Labor Force (Reconstruction and Civil War) or any similar topic only for you Order Now These factors opposed each other under a strained economy where employers didn’t recognize worker’s rights.The growth of technology and technological innovation made the rapid territorial expansion of American cities at first technologically feasible, and then socially and economically necessary. The nation’s cities grew because they became centers of industrialization which combined extensive urban construction and development with the consequent growing demand for factory workers. The nation’s rural areas in this period entered an era of decline as sources of individual opportunity.Because of the growing cultural emphasis on cities as the place to make one’s fortune, the nation on witnessed a large and growing population shift from rural to urban areas. The war had dramatically confirmed that it was possible to run large enterprises (e. g. , armies, transportation systems, manufacturing enterprises) on a national scale to fulfill national demand and thats why industrialization expanded. The growth of immigration in this period was spurred, as were so many other social phenomena, by technology. The development of ocean-going steamships and the rise of a great trans-oceanic trade spanning the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans made it possible for tens of thousands of men, women, and children to seek a new life in America and, despite the lure of the large eastern cities, to spread out across the continent to do so. Moreover, the rise of American industries and the growth of the railroad system created thousands of jobs (both in factories and in the construction trades) that offered powerful inducements to prospective immigrants seeking a new life.The massive European immigration that was one of the key facts of this period first inundated great cities such as New York, Boston, Philadelphia, and Chicago. But the growth of cities ran head-on into a long-standing American prejudice against urbanization as somehow European, corrupting, and dangerous to democracy. Just as labor’s response to industrialization seemed threatening to prized American values of individualism, free en terprise, and social mobility, so, too, did urbanization seem to endanger the individual’s ability to own his own home, the cherished doctrine of self-reliance, and the prospect of democratic government.But this anti-urban sentiment was only partly the latest outbreak of a venerable American intellectual tradition. It also was a direct response to the specific facts of American urban life, spread throughout the nation by the growing network of American newspapers and magazines. Americans throughout the nation read of the overcrowding of slums, the ghastly sanitary conditions that beset most urban areas, and the growing corruption of urban political life. Americans’ anti-urban sentiment was fed by prejudice against one of the principal reasons for urbanization.Although the idea of having a regular paying job was pleasing the conditions of industrial labor were often appalling, and at times life-threatening. Moreover, as the new industrial workers came to discover, they were unable to bargain over salary and working conditions weren’t on equal footing with prospective employers. They soon came to discovered that they were just another interchangeable part of a machine in the ever-growing industry. American workers realized that the individual worker was no match for the emerging economic world of large-scale corporate employers.They began to consider how to organize themselves to meet the challenge posed by the employers’ increasing econ omic power by creating labor unions. The first lawsuits over employee organizations took place before 1810, and the 1842 Massachusetts case of Commonwealth v. Hunt protected workers’ right to organize labor unions against the old common-law doctrine that forbade conspiracies in restraint of trade. But, throughout the nineteenth century, workers’ organizations found themselves besieged by hostile forces, by both employers and government (sometimes local, often state, and on occasion federal).The Age of Capital was an age of ruff edged battles between management and labor: the era of such great and terrible struggles as the â€Å"year of crisis† (1877), the Haymarket Riot of 1883, and the Homestead Steel Strike of 1892. Many labor leaders believed that organized labor would become a valuable nongovernmental response to the problem of corporate power, labor leaders hoped, the rise of an independent labor movement might induce government either to restrain the power of capitalist organizations (whether corporations or financial institutions) or to mediate between capital and labor.To some extent, their hopes were realized, as state and local governments experimented with legislation to protect the rights of workers (for example, state minimum-wage, maximum-hour, and working-conditions statutes) and the interests of consumers (for example, laws regulating railroad rates or the quality of manufactured products). But federal and state courts questioned the legitimacy and desirability of such measures, and that of the organized labor movement numbering those types of legislation among its goals. Many courts recognized such laws and programs as valid exercises of the state’s police power. Power granted to state governments to protect the health, safety, welfare, and morals of their citizens. But courts often suspected these statutes as violations of the freedom of contract protected by Article I, section 9 of the United States Constitution and of the due process rights of persons (including business corporations) under the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments to the Constitution. The late nineteenth century was one of the great ages of immigration in American history.This era of immigration differed from previous immigration booms in two key respects: scale and sources. In many ways, the change in sources of immigration was more important than the change in scale. By far the largest sources of immigrants in the period were the nations of central, eastern, and southern Europe. These immigrants were refugees from economic privation and political and religious persecution in the ailing empires of Austria-Hungary and Russia and the new, fragile nations of Italy and Germany.The floods of immigrants that poured into the nation’s largest cities (usually the seaports, such as New York, and rail centers, such as Chicago) swamped the cities’ resources of housing and employment. In response to growing alarm at urban immigrants’ living and working conditions, social reformers began to organize public and private relief programs and to pursue attempts to establish legal standards for housing and working conditions. These scattered reform efforts were among the seeds of a much larger, more comprehensive series of reform movements that soon came to dominate American life.Immigrants at the time were seen as competition, as they took a large portion of the work force. During strikes they would give Americans a harsher time in accomplishing their purp ose. Employers were prone to replace American workers by hiring immigrants, in return this option benefited the employers in the long run. Employers were able to exploit immigrants because of their economically challenged needs. This was at large the worst half of having a large population of immigrants because employers were able to replace you within seconds,.There would be three willing immigrants formed in line ready to work with all conditions that American workers were opposed to. Although immigration was one of the prime forces that shaped the American people, Americans always have been ambivalent about the virtues and advantages of immigration. Those who already have roots here have often resented those who sought to join them. In part, this was simply an expression of the fear that newcomers might not only outstrip those who were already here in achievement but even exclude them from the fruits of economic and social success.In part, anti-immigrant feeling is (and has been) closely linked to religious, ethnic, or racial prejudice. In few periods of American history were these prejudices as evident as in the late nineteenth century. One way in which these prejudices found expression was the belief that the â€Å"new immigrants,† coming as they did from despotic monarchies, were incapable of understanding democracy, living by it, or taking part in it. What caused change was technological advances that ultimately impacted two major factors that changed the lives of American industrial workers between 1865-1900. How to cite Labor Force (Reconstruction and Civil War), Papers

Leadership in Business Autocratic and Bureaucratic

Question: Discuss about the Leadership in Business for Autocratic and Bureaucratic. Answer: Introduction According to Winkler (2010), leadership refers to the ability of the one in the leadership position to influence the members of his team into positive activities that they would not do in normal circumstances. Leaders can guide their team towards the achievement of the set goals and objectives of the team involved. The use of effective styles of management is vital for the successful completion of a project because it facilitates the establishment and the maintenance of a motivated team. Individuals who are responsible for the management of a team can use different styles of leadership such as transformational, democratic, autocratic, bureaucratic, laissez-faire and charismatic styles of leadership to successfully manage their teams. Among these leadership styles, transformational style of leadership is regarded as the most effective style of leadership because it entails a lot of motivation and inspiration to the team members (Northouse, 2016). Leaders are fully aware that the succe ssful management of a team entails teamwork and effective collaboration. However, the chosen style of leadership depends on the prevailing situation within the involved team. Varying situations requires that leaders should implement specific leadership behavior and play different roles because of the presence of different contextual factors. In line with these aspects, this paper is going to discuss the roles, situations, and leadership behavior under three selected leadership contexts. CEO of a Multi-national Company High-organizational performance is a major factor that a CEO must consider. Therefore, one of the leadership roles that is played by CEOs to achieve results is the role of a pace setter, whereby the leader sets the goals and objectives to be achieved by the subordinates (Bouhali, at al. 2015). While playing this role, the leader expects and models excellence and self-direction. This leadership style works best when the team is already motivated and has enough skills. In this regard, the leadership behavior implemented in this situation is to inspire others. To inspire the team, another role that the CEO plays is that of formulating an effective vision for the company (Coleman MacNicol, 2015). The vision provides the team members with a broader perspective of the goals and objectives to achieve. Company image is a major factor to consider as a leader. A leader must consider the perception of both external and internal stakeholders on the company. As the heads of the entire organization, CEOs of the multi-national companies have the responsibility of building a brand image of the company (Northouse, 2010). Therefore, the CEO is expected to adopt integrity as a leadership behavior. According to Pandya (2014), integrity as a leadership behavior refers to the adherence to ethical business practices. In this regard, the CEO plays several leadership roles, for example, the fostering ethical values within the company. The CEO also take the role of an exemplary leader by engaging in ethical business practices so that the subordinates can follow suit (Turner Mller, 2010). The CEO also plays the role of sensitizing the subordinates regarding the importance of observing ethical business to the image of a multi-national company. In a situation where the reputation of the company is dam aged, the CEO plays the role of an ambassador of the company. Here, he engages in PR activities, whereby, he apologizes for the mistake that led to the damaging of the companys reputation. Hospital Emergency Room Patient outcome is a major factor to consider. Therefore, one of the leadership roles that a leader in the emergency room plays is that of decision-making (Whitehead, Weiss, Tappen, 2010). Patients in the emergency room require critical and urgent treatment, and therefore, to deliver high-quality treatment that will improve patient outcome, effective decision-making is needed. In a situation where a patient needs critical attention, the leader is required to adopt critical thinking and appropriate judgment as leadership behavior (Riaz Haider, 2010). Critical thinking and appropriate judgment of the patients condition helps the team leader to guide his team members to design the appropriate treatment plan for the patient in the emergency room. In this regard, it is the role of the emergency room leader to encourage critical thinking and to facilitate effective problem solving within the department. Another role the leader in the emergency room plays is that of a communicator (Goodpasture, 2010). For successful operations in the emergency room, there is a need for effective communication from the leader, whereby the leader gives a set of guidelines to be followed in the delivery of services to patients. In a situation where there is poor patient outcome due to the lack of information sharing among the team members involved in the team, the leader has the role of developing a clear and effective channels of communication to facilitate the dissemination or information and reception of feedback. To achieve this, the leadership behavior that the ER leader should implement is building trust among team members to achieve effective collaboration and the sharing of information to facilitate treatment that improves patient outcome. An important factor to consider in the emergency room is the needs of both patients and healthcare providers (Whitehead, Weiss, Tappen, 2010). Patients need empathy and care while the practitioners need support. In this regard, it is the role of the leader to show love to the patients while providing the necessary support to the team of healthcare providers involved so that they deliver high-quality healthcare to the patients. In this regard, empathy and a leadership behavior should be adopted by the leader to enable him or her to remain affectionate to the patients. Care and affection boost the healing process of patients. Similarly, the leader should adopt the supportive leadership behavior to give moral support to the team members. For example, by motivating and encouraging the practitioners when they are faced with challenges in the emergency room. Sports Coach One of the most vital factors to consider as a sports coach is teamwork. Effective teamwork is the backbone of success for a sports team (Chiocchio, Kelloway, Hobbs, 2015). In this regard, the coach has the responsibility of building a cohesive team of talented players. To achieve this, a sports coach plays the role of a communicator. Effective communication is a major factor to consider when handling a sports team. Therefore, a sports coach plays the role of communicating with his team members to establish the progress of the team and to solve all the challenges affecting the performance of each team member. The sports coach also plays the role mobilization of all the members of the team to achieve the set goals and objectives. In this situation, the coach is expected to implement the leadership behavior of building a strong team and winning the trust of all the team members. Another factor to consider is the teams performance as well as the performance of individual players. The success of a team is determined by the performance of the team, and therefore, to be ranked successful, a sports team should win as many games as possible. There are situations when the team is losing, and the morale of the player is low. In such situations, the coach has the role of motivating the players (Yudhvir Sunita, 2012). Here, the coach adopts inspirational leadership behaviors to motivate and boost the morale of the players. The coach can achieve this by speaking in a positive manner to the players. He can also express his confidence in the players before and during the game by motivating them to inspire the players to victory. Another role of a sports coach is nurturing talent. Developing talent through training and mentoring of each player to develop the skills and technique of the players. In sports, there are situations where a player is talented; however, he or she lacks the appropriate techniques to record high performance (Whitehead, Weiss, Tappen, 2010). It is in such situations that the coach is charged with the responsibility of developing the technique of the player. In line with these aspects, the coach plays the role of talent development as a leader. Here, the leader is expected to adopt coaching as a leadership behavior. In this regard, the leader plays key roles of training to help the player enhance his strengths and overcome their weaknesses. The coach also plays the role of mentoring the players to ensure mental development for excellent performance. Conclusion In summary, leaders are very instrumental in influencing the performance of a team. A leader can either lead the team to success or failure. As demonstrated in this paper, leaders have similar roles and responsibilities to play in their respective team. However, depending on the situation at hand a leader employs different leadership behaviors and engages in different roles to ensure success. CEOs of multi-national companies play the role of improving the companys image and leading the company to success, therefore, he engages in the setting of goals and objectives to be met. The leader in an emergency room also aims at improving patient outcome. Therefore, he encourages critical thinking and engages in problem-solving to ensure that high-quality treatment is given to patients. Finally, sports coaches play the role of developing talent. Therefore, they train, coach and mentor players. They also motivate and inspire them to ensure excellent performance. References Bouhali, R.et al. (2015). Leader Roles for Innovation: Strategic Thinking and Planning. Procedia-Social and behavioural sciences, 181, 72-78. Chiocchio, F., Kelloway, E., Hobbs, B. (2015).The Psychology and Management of Project Teams.New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Coleman, S. MacNicol, D. (2015).Project Leadership.Farnham, Surrey, UK Burlington, VT: Gower. Goodpasture, J. (2010).Project Management the Agile Way: Making it Work in the Enterprise.Ft. Lauderdale, FL: J. Ross Publishing. Northouse, P. G. (2010).Leadership: Theory and Practice.Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Northouse,P. G. (2016). Leadership: Theory and practice. 7th ed. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE Publications. Pandya, K. D. (2014). The Key Competencies of Project Leader beyond the Essential Technical Capabilities. IUP Journal of Knowledge Management, 12(4), 39-48. Riaz, A. Haider, M. H. (2010). Role of transformational and transactional leadership on job satisfaction and career satisfaction. Business and Economic Horizons, 1(1), 29-38. Turner, J. Mller, R. (2010).Project-Oriented Leadership.Farnham, Surrey, UK Burlington, VT: Gower Publishing, Ltd. Whitehead, D. K., Weiss, S. A., Tappen, R. M. (2010). Essentials of nursing leadership and management. (5th Ed.). Philadelphia, PA: F. A. Davis Company. Winkler, I. (2010).Contemporary Leadership Theories: Enhancing the Understanding of the Complexity, Subjectivity and Dynamic of Leadership. Heidelberg: Physica-Verlag. Yudhvir, M. R. and Sunita, M. S. (2012). Employees motivation: theories and perspectives. Asian Journal of Multidimensional Research, 1(2), 56-64.

Horace Mann free essay sample

Some of issues the issues are the purpose of education and the improvement of education. The purpose of education is a large subject and Horace Mann covered it completely throughout his life. Even today the purpose of our schools is almost the same as what Horace Mann prescribed it should be long ago. Mann wanted the common schools to be available to everyone. He wanted it to be available to people that were rich, poor, and of different backgrounds. Public schools try to be this today; they are free to everyone ND nondiscriminatory.Mann believed in public support and control of schools. Mann thought that education was a right that was passed on from generation to generation. Denying children this right was horrible to Mann. Today in the United States, education of the public is seen as a right and is partaken in by countless young people every year. Horace Mann thought that if children were taught well they would make good government officials. We will write a custom essay sample on Horace Mann or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Mann thought that schools must emphasize moral, civic, and cultural values. These ideas are what schools try to accomplish today.Mann believed in a common program in schools that would educate everyone. He thought that common schools should not teach vocational training, but instead offer an education beneficial to all. Schools today follow the same purpose that Mann laid out long ago. Schools today follow ideas by offering a program that opens opportunities in any field. There is also a common curriculum in most schools because many courses are state required and standard to all schools. Mann thought that schools should teach a complete educational program including physical education and musical education.Schools today teach physical education and music to provide their students with a better educational experience. Mann thought also that schools should have nothing to do in their religion and politics. Ideally, this is what public schools and teachers try to do today. Religion is not a part of the public school today. During twelve years as secretary of the Massachusetts board of education he sent back reports to the board as to the condition of schools and what he thought should be taught in them. Horace Mann free essay sample During Mans tenure he increased the funding available to schools, improved the preparation and support of teachers, and advocated for compassionate discipline. Mann believed children in public schools should be taught the ethical principles common across Christianity, but not those doctrines about which different sects disagreed. Today Mann is still criticized by both sides. Religious conservatives often blame him for taking the steps that lead to the complete colonization of public school yester. Liberals sometimes criticize his lack of interest in making public education more comfortable for non-Christians. Mans compromise was possibly the only one that could have both sides satisfied. During one of Mans speeches he claimed that slavery would abolish education, if it should invade a free state; education would abolish slavery, if it could invade a free state. In 1848 Horace Mann declared that in America, common, public schools would be the balance wheel Of the social machinery. We will write a custom essay sample on Horace Mann or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page This is what has kept public schools attractive to most of the public in most parts of the country for the past century and a half. Americans have consistently believed that common public schools are necessary to teach common values, common knowledge of the political systems, respect for institutions, respect for property, and other values that are needed to keep a democratic system from flying apart.

50 Pieces of Stephen Kings Greatest Writing Advice - Freewrite Store

50 Pieces of Stephen Kings Greatest Writing Advice - Freewrite Store Over his decades-spanning career, Stephen King has written an astounding 54 novels that have sold over 350 million copies. His work has been adapted into films, miniseries, television shows, comic books, video games, and more. It is no wonder Stephen King's writing advice is so frequently sought after. King has the unique ability to make readers feel every emotion on the spectrum: love, joy, rage, terror, disappointment, and sorrow. When he talks about writing, aspiring authors should sit up and pay attention. As writers, we want to make people cry, laugh, and wipe their sweaty palms on their shirts so they can better grip their books. Stephen King has mastered this. Though he’s an incredibly gifted writer, King shed blood, sweat, and tears to get where he is today, and was gracious enough to share his advice in his book,  On Writing- a must-read for aspiring and established authors - as well as multiple interviews and appearances throughout the years. His advice is the no-bullshit version of all those rejection letters writers receive, probably because King got a truckload himself.  As he put it, â€Å"By the time I was fourteen the nail in my wall would no longer support the weight of the rejection slips impaled upon it. I replaced the nail with a spike and went on writing.† In his own words, here is Stephen King's greatest writing advice: On Getting Started  1. The Scariest Moment  2. Starting Out in the Industry  3. Writing Short Stories On the Writing Process  4. The Best Advice He Ever Got  5. Avoiding Distractions  6. Starting the Day Writing  7. The Process  8. Write Like Yourself  9. Go Where the Story Leads You  10. Make Stories About People  11. Break Up Thoughts  12. Kill Your Darlings  13. Avoid Too Much Backstory  14. The Purpose of Symbolism On Grammar and Parts of Speech  15. Don’t Sweat the Grammar  16. Passive Sentences  17. Sentence Fragments  18. Avoid Adverbs  19. Grammar is Simple  20. Two Types of Verbs On Description  21. Don’t Over-Describe  22. Keep It Simple  23. A Learned Skill  24. Again, Don’t Over-Describe On Reading  25. Read A Lot  26. Duplicating the Effect of Good Writing  27. The Purpose of Book Genres  28. Technology and the ‘Death’ of Books  29. The Importance of Literacy  30. Good People On Inspiration  31. Amateurs Vs. Professionals  32. On New Ideas  33. Love it  34. Fulfillment  35. Perseverance  36. Take Risks!  37. Getting Happy  38. A Way Back to Life  30. Your Job is to Show Up  40. A Support System  41. Talent Renders Rehearsal Meaningless  42. Don’t Wait for the Muse On Editing  43. Rewrite  44. Finding Cultural and Thematic Implications  45. Reality in Fiction  46. Doors On Telling the Truth  47. Rudeness  48. Bad Writing  49. Don’t Let Others Shame You  50. The Most Important Things Are the Hardest to Say On Getting Started 1. The Scariest Moment "The scariest moment is always just before you start. After that, things can only get better." 2. Starting Out in the Industry "You don't always have to take the editor's advice. Sometimes the way you see it is the way it should be. I assume that every writer was a lot smarter and a lot craftier than I was. That turned out not to be the truth." 3. Writing Short Stories "The novel is a quagmire that a lot of younger writers stumble into before they’re ready to go there. I started with short stories when I was 18, sold my first one when I was about 20 and produced nothing much but – well I wrote a couple of novels but they were not accepted and a lot of them were so bad that I didn’t even bother to revise them, but the short stories were making money and I got very comfortable in that format. And I’ve never wanted to leave it completely behind." On The Writing Process 4. The Best Advice He Ever Got "It boils down to what Satchel Paige said: 'Don’t look back, something might be gaining on you.' There will be people who like what you do and people who don’t. But if they’re picking over the last thing and you’re working on the next thing, that’s all yours." 5. Avoiding Distractions "It's pure habit. I write from probably 7:30 till noon most days. I kind of fall into a trance. It's important to remember that it isn't the big thing in life. The big thing in life is being there if you're needed for family or if there's an emergency or something. But you have to cut out the unimportant background chatter. That means no Twitter. That means not going to  Huffington Post  to see what Kim Kardashian is up to. There's a time for that – for me, it's usually before I go to bed. I find myself sitting hypnotized and looking at videos of funny dogs, that kind of thing." 6. Starting the Day Writing "I wake up. I eat breakfast. I walk about three and a half miles. I come back, I go out to my little office, where I've got a manuscript, and the last page that I was happy with is on top. I read that, and it's like getting on a taxiway. I'm able to go through and revise it and put myself –  click  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ back into that world, whatever it is. I don't spend the day writing. I'll maybe write fresh copy for two hours, and then I'll go back and revise some of it and print what I like and then turn it off." 7. The Process "For me the fun of writing novels isn’t in the finished product, which I don’t care about. There’s a guy over there looking at all the books on my shelf and to me those are like dead skin. They’re things that are done, but I love the process." 8. Write Like Yourself "I love D.H. Lawrence. And James Dickey's poetry, Émile Zola, Steinbeck... Fitzgerald, not so much. Hemingway, not at all. Hemingway sucks, basically. If people like that, terrific. But if I set out to write that way, what would've come out would've been hollow and lifeless because it wasn't me." 9. Go Where the Story Leads You "When I started [Salem’s Lot] I thought to myself, 'Well, this will be the opposite of Dracula where the good guys win and in this book the good guys are gonna lose and everybody’s gonna become a vampire at the end of the book.' And that didn’t happen. Because you go where the book leads you." 10. Make Stories About People "I think the best stories always end up being about the people rather than the event, which is to say character-driven." 11. Break Up Thoughts "You might also notice how much simpler the thought is to understand when it's broken up into two thoughts. This makes matter easier for the reader, and the reader must always be your main concern; without Constant Reader, you are just a voice quacking in the void." 12. Kill Your Darlings "Kill your darlings, kill your darlings, even when it breaks your egocentric little scribbler’s heart, kill your darlings." 13. Avoid Too Much Backstory "The most important things to remember about backstory are that (a) everyone has a history and (b) most of it isn’t very interesting." 14. The Purpose of Symbolism "Symbolism exists to adorn and enrich, not to create an artificial sense of profundity." On Grammar and Parts of Speech 15. Don’t Sweat the Grammar "The object of fiction isn't grammatical correctness but to make the reader welcome and then tell a story." 16. Passive Sentences "Two pages of the passive voice- just about any business document ever written, in other words, not to mention reams of bad fiction- make me want to scream. It’s weak, it’s circuitous, and it’s frequently tortuous, as well. How about this: 'My first kiss will always be recalled by me as how my romance with Shayna was begun.' Oh, man- who farted, right? A simpler way to express this ideasweeter and more forceful, as wellmight be this: 'My romance with Shayna began with our first kiss. I'll never forget it.' I'm not in love with this because it uses with twice in four words, but at least we're out of that awful passive voice." 17. Sentence Fragments "Must  you write complete sentences each time, every time? Perish the thought. If your work consists only of fragments and floating clauses, the Grammar Police aren’t going to come and take you away. Even William Strunk, that Mussolini of rhetoric, recognized the delicious pliability of language. 'It is an old observation,' he writes, 'that the best writers sometimes disregard the rules of rhetoric.' Yet he goes on to add this thought, which I urge you to consider: 'Unless he is certain of doing well, [the writer] will probably do best to follow the rules.'" 18. Avoid Adverbs "The other piece of advice I want to give you before moving on to the next level of the toolbox is this:  The adverb is not your friend. Adverbs, like the passive voice, seem to have been created with the timid writer in mind. With the passive voice, the writer usually expresses fear of not being taken seriously; it is the voice of little boys wearing shoe polish mustaches and little girls clumping around in Mommy’s high heels. With adverbs, the writer usually tells us he or she is afraid he/she isn’t expressing himself/herself clearly, that he or she is not getting the point or the picture across." 19. Grammar is Simple "One who does grasp the rudiments of grammar find a comforting simplicity at its heart, where there need only be nouns, the words that name, and verbs, the words that act." 20. Two Types of Verbs "Verbs come in two types, active and passive. With an active verb, the subject of the sentence is doing something. With a passive verb, something is being done to the subject of the sentence. The subject is just letting it happen. You should avoid the passive voice." On Description 21. Don’t Over-Describe "In many cases when a reader puts a story aside because it 'got boring,' the boredom arose because the writer grew enchanted with his powers of description and lost sight of his priority, which is to keep the ball rolling." 22. Keep It Simple "One of the really bad things you can do to your writing is to dress up the vocabulary, looking for long words because you're maybe a little bit ashamed of your short ones." 23. A Learned Skill "Good description is a learned skill, one of the prime reasons why you cannot succeed unless you read a lot and write a lot. It’s not just a question of how-to, you see; it’s also a question of how much to. Reading will help you answer how much, and only reams of writing will help you with the how. You can learn only by doing." 24. Again, Don’t Over-Describe "I’m not particularly keen on writing which exhaustively describes the physical characteristics of the people in the story and what they’re wearing... I can always get a J. Crew catalogue... so spare me, if you please, the hero’s 'sharply intelligent blue eyes' and 'outthrust, determined chin.'" On Reading 25. Read A Lot "If you want to be a writer, you must do two things above all others: read a lot and write a lot. There's no way around these two things that I'm aware of, no shortcut." 26. Duplicating the Effect of Good Writing "You cannot hope to sweep someone else away by the force of your writing until it has been done to you." 27. The Purpose of Book Genres "As far as I’m concerned, genre was created by bookstores so that people who were casual readers could say, 'Well, I want to read romances.' 'Well, right over there, that’s where romances are.' The thing about genre is, so many people are like little kids who say, 'I can’t eat this food because it’s touching this other thing.'" 28. Technology and the ‘Death’ of Books "The book is not the important part. The book is the delivery system. The important part is the story and the talent." 29. The Importance of Literacy "Reading is more than a door opener to a better job. It’s cool, it’s a kick, it’s a buzz. Plain old fun. Non-readers live just one single life. It may be a good one, it may be a great one, but a reader can live thousands. Sometimes when the right book falls into the right pair of hands, it lights a fire that leads to others." 30. Good People "You know what I like? When I go into someone’s house and ask to use the bathroom and see a bunch of books beside the commode. When I see that, I know I’m with my peeps, you know what I’m sayin’? People who read on the toilet, as far as I’m concerned, good people." On Inspiration 31. Amateurs vs. Professionals "Amateurs sit and wait for inspiration, the rest of us just get up and go to work." 32. On New Ideas "Particularly in the Horror genre there are only three or four good ideas and we’ve all done them before. And it’s really – okay, I mean like, how many times in your life have you eaten eggs? But there’s always a new way to fix eggs and, you know, I look at it that way. You can always find a new way to do it. I think there are as many ideas as there are probing talented minds to explore those ideas." 33. Love it "I did it for the pure joy of the thing. And if you can do it for joy, you can do it forever." 34. Fulfillment "I’ve written because it fulfilled me. Maybe it paid off the mortgage on the house and got the kids through college, but those things were on the side – I did it for the buzz... You can approach the act of writing with nervousness, excitement, hopefulness, or even despair – the sense that you can never completely put on the page what’s in your mind and heart. You can come to the act with your fists clenched and your eyes narrowed, ready to kick ass and take down names. You can come to it because you want a girl to marry you or because you want to change the world. Come to it any way but lightly. Let me say it again: you must not come lightly to the blank page. " 35. Perseverance "Stopping a piece of work just because it's hard, either emotionally or imaginatively, is a bad idea. Optimism is a perfectly legitimate response to failure." 36. Take Risks! "Try any goddamn thing you like, no matter how boringly normal or outrageous. If it works, fine. If it doesn't, toss it." 37. Getting Happy "Writing isn't about making money, getting famous, getting dates, getting laid, or making friends. In the end, it's about enriching the lives of those who will read your work, and enriching your own life, as well. It's about getting up, getting well, and getting over. Getting happy, okay? Getting happy." 38. A Way Back to Life "Writing is not life, but I think that sometimes it can be a way back to life." 39. Your Job is to Show Up "Let's get one thing clear right now, shall we? There is no Idea Dump, no Story Central, no Island of the Buried Bestsellers; good story ideas seem to come quite literally from nowhere, sailing at you right out of the empty sky: two previously unrelated ideas come together and make something new under the sun. Your job isn't to find these ideas but to recognize them when they show up." 40. A Support System "It starts with this: put your desk in the corner, and every time you sit down there to write, remind yourself why it isn't in the middle of the room. Life isn't a support system for art. It's the other way around." 41. Talent Renders Rehearsal Meaningless "Talent renders the whole idea of rehearsal meaningless; when you find something at which you are talented, you do it (whatever it is) until your fingers bleed or your eyes are ready to fall out of your head. Even when no one is listening (or reading or watching), every outing is a bravura performance, because you as the creator are happy. Perhaps even ecstatic." 42. Don’t Wait for the Muse "Don't wait for the muse. As I've said, he's a hardheaded guy who's not susceptible to a lot of creative fluttering. This isn't the Ouija board or the spirit-world we're talking about here, but just another job like laying pipe or driving long-haul trucks. Your job is to make sure the muse knows where you're going to be every day from nine 'til noon. Or seven 'til three. If he does know, I assure you that sooner or later he'll start showing up." On Editing 43. Rewrite "I cannot emphasize the importance of rewriting." 44. Finding Cultural and Thematic Implications "In terms of work, once I sit down to write and I’m in the story, all that falls away. I’m not thinking about cultural implications, I’m not thinking about genre, I’m not thinking about any of those things that have to do with what critics would talk about when they analyze fiction - all those things go away. But they only go away in the first draft. And then you put stuff away. When you come back to it, you read it and you say, these are the important things, this is where lightning struck for me. Those are almost always things that are cultural and thematic, and I just try and highlight those." 45. Reality in Fiction "You can never bend reality to serve the fiction. You have to bend the fiction to serve reality when you find those things out." 46. Doors "Write with the door closed, rewrite with the door open." On Telling the Truth 47. Rudeness "If you expect to succeed as a writer, rudeness should be the second-to-least of your concerns. The least of all should be polite society and what it expects. If you intend to write as truthfully as you can, your days as a member of polite society are numbered, anyway." 48. Bad Writing "Bad writing is more than a matter of shit syntax and faulty observation; bad writing usually arises from a stubborn refusal to tell stories about what people actually do―to face the fact, let us say, that murderers sometimes help old ladies cross the street." 49. Don’t Let Others Shame You "I have spent a good many years since―too many, I think―being ashamed about what I write. I think I was forty before I realized that almost every writer of fiction or poetry who has ever published a line has been accused by someone of wasting his or her God-given talent. If you write (or paint or dance or sculpt or sing, I suppose), someone will try to make you feel lousy about it, that's all." 50. The Most Important Things Are the Hardest to Say "The most important things are the hardest things to say. They are the things you get ashamed of because words diminish your feelings – words shrink things that seem timeless when they are in your head to no more than living size when they are brought out." BONUS:          More Resources: "The Last Word: Stephen King on Trump, Writing, Why Selfies Are Evil" - Rolling Stone   "The Blue-Collar King: An Interview with Stephen King" - LA Review of Books "Stephen King, The Art of Fiction" - The Paris Review "Stephen King talks about his writing process" - Bangor Daily News And most importantly, On Writing by Stephen King.

Psychology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 8

Psychology - Essay Example Repression is an unconscious reaction to a traumatic event or threatening feelings that enables a child who suffered abuse, for example, to completely block all memory of the event out of their mind. Denial is somewhat similar to repression in that the mind works to ignore a situation, threatening impulse or other unpleasant idea, but in this case, there is some conscious understanding of what has taken place yet the individual denies to themselves that the event occurred the way it did or that it had an effect on them. Displacement allows an individual to transfer negative feelings to a less threatening target as a means of relieving tension. In this case, an individual who has a difficult relationship with their boss might come home from work and be mean to their pet or roommate or drive home aggressively, cutting people off in traffic and yelling at people passing by (Just, n.d.). In addition to the development of the mind, Freud identified several psychosexual stages of development through which a child must pass to become a healthy adult. These begin with the oral stage in which all pleasure comes to the infant through the mouth. The next stage is the anal stage in conjunction with toilet training and represents the child’s first battle between the id and the ego and superego and can shape personality into anal retentive or anal expulsive characters. The phallic stage is when the child becomes aware of his or her genitals and begins to identify with either the mother or the father and results in the child wishing to possess the parent of the opposite sex. Once these stages are navigated, the child enters a latency period in which the sexual drive is dormant, but it reemerges with adolescence in the genital stage as individuals begin focusing their attention on heterosexual relationships in the teenage years. Attributions are basically the human need to offer an explanation for a variety of events. External

Essay about martin luther the priest Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

About martin luther the priest - Essay Example He translated Bible into the language of the people so that they could understand the Holy Book. He was also a noteworthy hymn writer as his hymns brought together different pieces of art and music with different age segments of the society. His theology basically challenged the manner in which the authority of the Pope of the Roman Catholic Church was raised (Rose 2002). He suggested that Bible was the only source of knowledge that comes under the aegis of divinely revealed ones. In the later stage of his life, Martin Luther became strongly Antisemitic whereby he wrote that Jewish homes should be dismantled their synagogues be burnt, money usurped and liberty ended. For these revelations and public statements, Martin Luther was hailed as a very controversial figure among a number of historians and religious scholars. Martin Luther suffered from a number of diseases and eventually died in 1546. Rose, Paul Lawrence. Revolutionary Antisemitism in Germany from Kant to Wagner. Princeton University Press, 1990. Cited in Berger, Ronald. Fathoming the Holocaust: A Social Problems Approach. New York: Aldine De Gruyter,

Socratic discussion exercise Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

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Comparison of Teacher Education Programmes in Pakistan UK

Comparison of Teacher Education Programmes in Pakistan UK Comparative Analysis of Teacher Education Programmes in Pakistan UK CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Background of the Study The overall development status of every country depends upon the standard of education prevalent across that country. It is an era of knowledge based economies, and countries failing in education find it hard to catch up with the developed world. In other words a countrys economic and cultural future as well as its scientific and technological growth owe to the academic standards being maintained by the teachers in its educational institutions. Thus teachers contributions are well acknowledged as builders of the nation and molders of personalities. In fact the key player of every educational system is the teacher, who is considered the backbone of the entire system all over the world, and a pivot around which the whole education system revolves. Teacher is the major implementer of all educational reforms at the grass root level. Teaching without doubt is considered one of the very noble professions. It offers constant intellectual challenges, acknowledgement, respect in the society a nd above all the opportunity to mould the personalities of a big majority of youth. This centrality qualifies teachers to be the crucial position holders in creating impact on all aspects of students personalities. They are the teachers who bring about positive behavioural changes in students by grooming and developing their personalities. That is why it is necessary that they should be adequately equipped with skills and abilities that would enable them to play an effective role in human development both from national and global perspectives. The Indian Education Commission 1964-66, as observed by Sheikh M.A (1998)[1] had ranked the quality and competence of the teachers as the most important factor determining the quality of education significantly contributing to the national development. Nothing is more important than securing a sufficient supply of high quality recruits to the teaching profession, providing them with the best possible professional preparation and creating satisfactory conditions of work in which they can be fully effective.† However, this central position, demands great care and attention in the education and training of teachers, who develop and enable students meet effectively the challenges of present and future. Ascertaining the effectiveness of these trainings asks for the analysis of teacher education programs in the social context of every country socio economic, cultural and historic factors substantially influence its nature and value. Concept of Teacher Education Teacher education is a discipline and sub sector of education with its distinct pre service and in service forms. It equips prospective and in service teachers with information, knowledge and pedagogical skills to help reform their attitudes and behaviour to the profession of education. The key objective is to facilitate the transfer of knowledge (cognitive, affective and psychomotor) to students and to build their character and personalities. In other words teacher education refers to the policies and procedures designed to equip teachers with the knowledge, attitudes, behaviours and skills they require to perform their tasks effectively in the school and classroom. (Wikipedia, 09) [2] According to Sheikh M.A (1998), teacher education encompasses acquiring all that knowledge, skills and abilities which are relevant to the life of a â€Å"teacher as a teacher† It reshapes the attitudes, remodels the habits, and develops the personalities of teachers. Need for Teacher Education Teachers general education and professional training both require utmost care and attention, as whatever is acquired by them is transferred to their students with high multiple effects. The present has witnessed and is still experiencing a rapidly but positively changing scenario of processes and procedures of teacher training. New innovative methods are continuously being added to the already practiced traditional pedagogical techniques. Acquainting with these developments to the point of mastery is needed for the promotion and maintenance of good teaching learning standards. Good quality teacher education about these key elements paves the way of the development of the education system in the long run. Teachers are the layers of the foundations of future citizens, hence need to be educated with futuristic perspective, so that they can develop the personalities of their students, not only as per present requirements but also for the years to come, accommodating the new trends from the global outlook. This is very important as teacher is one of the key agents of change in all communities and a service provider as per needs of the future. Changes are taking place not only at national but also at international level. With every passing day distances are shrinking and communities are coming closer to each other affecting each others practices of life. Purpose of Teacher Education The purpose of teacher education primarily is to equip prospective teachers not only with suitable aptitudes for teaching but also with appropriate skills and abilities required to make them effective and efficient professionals. Through different theoretical and practical activities, they are helped to understand not only the philosophical, psychological, and sociological basis of teaching, but also the relationship of education with the society and its values through teaching and learning processes. The process of formal teacher education can help the prospective teachers minimize the troubles and save the students from the wastages of hit and trial. Appropriately rendered teacher education, provides ample opportunities to would be teachers to understand the nature of teaching; to envisage responsibilities of a teacher; to discover that to be a teacher is much more than learning by heart the philosophies and theories of learning; and to comprehend the practical implications of the pedagogical strategies. It is learnt that the profession of teaching is in fact facilitating the acquisition and retention of knowledge, values, skills and right attitudes for successful life that can initiate and promote positive changes in the society. Keeping this in view teacher education, through teacher-preparatory years focuses on the development of abilities and skills that would not only make them capable teachers but will enable them to discharge duties effectively, take initiatives, motivate students and facilitate learning. With the belief that practice makes one perfect, students during teacher education phase are given the opportunity to teach or instruct and receive constant guidance and encouragement during practical delivery, in order to strengthen good habits and to overcome the pedagogical weaknesses. Phases of Teacher Education Farrant, J. S. (1990)[3], observed that since the dawn of the twenty first century teacher education in developed countries remained divided into three phases: 1) Initial Teacher Education 2) Induction 3) Continuing Teacher Education 1) Initial teacher training / education This education pertains to the training that is undertaken before formally starting the teaching profession. It is a pre-service course done before entering the classroom as a fully responsible teacher. It is usually provided in education colleges and education departments of universities where the student teachers are introduced to the knowledge and skills needed to be professional teachers. The students are formally taught the important components of this profession including aims of education, history of education, perspectives of education, modern approaches to learning, assessment and evaluation of learning and basics of curriculum development, educational psychology, philosophy and pedagogy. It also provides first hand experience of the practical aspects of the teaching profession. It usually takes a year or so and culminates into a certificate or a degree. 2) Induction This informal phase begins when a student teacher changes from being a part time, visiting student teacher to a full time adequately responsible professional. Basically induction refers to the process of providing on the job guidance and support to the teachers during the first few months of teaching or the first year of the professional career. In countries like UK, during induction the teacher is on probation, and receives guidance and supervision formally by the teacher-tutor, and informally from all other colleagues head teacher. The work load during this phase of education is reduced in order to provide time and opportunity for guidance, reflection and grooming. This is a transitional phase from being a student to being a full time teacher. 3) Teachers continuous professional development It is an in-service process for professional refinement of practicing teachers. It is a life long process in which efforts are made to improve and polish up the potentials of the teachers. It includes professional trainings like workshops, short courses and seminars. This is usually formally arranged by good schools or can be self directed through reading of professional books, discussions with colleagues, benefiting from on line courses, or attending training workshops, conferences, and symposiums. With the passage of time, all institutions have started to value in service training of teachers more and more; and are regularly arranging training programs of different durations for their teachers. These trainings are sometimes general in nature for the improvement of the overall teaching methodologies, and sometimes focused on improving specific subject-teaching skills, enabling teachers master innovative concepts recently incorporated in the existing curriculum. Such in service trainings are usually taken up in anticipation for the expected promotions. Usefulness of Comparing Teacher Education Systems Sodhi (1993)[4] documented, â€Å"Comparative education is a popular educational venture and is considered very useful in countries like USA, UK, Russia and even India. It is considered so, as education has been recognized an investment for development of human resources, which is in fact the development of human capital formation. All people engaged in the field of education have much to learn from the policies and educational practices of other lands. Apparently the educational system of a country grows out of the historical background, economic and social conditions, geographical features and political systems and no country is in a position to totally adopt the educational patterns of another country as such. But lessons can be learnt, and successful practices can be adopted to meet the needs from the angle it looks upon them.† With advancement in technology and with communication explosion, the geographical distances are shrinking and people are coming closer to each other. The similarities caused by science and technology are overpowering the differences resulting from cultural diversities. The fact suggested by increasing similarities is that different nations of the worldwhich looks like a global village now, can learn a lot from each others experiences and progress to save time, energy and resources required for the ‘try and learn activities. The knowledge about the successes and failures of other systems can be very awakening and beneficial in comprehending ones own educational problems. The backwardness or advancement of ones own system can be ascertained only through analytical comparison, particularly with those of the economically and educationally advanced countries. In spite of increased investment in education sector, Pakistan has not yet achieved its target of UPE (Universal Primary Education) set in 1960 that was to be achieved by 1980. Analysis of the educational status of Pakistan reveals that a reasonable progress has been made by it since independence. At that time not even a million students were studying in schools, whereas now more than twelve million children are in schools. But at the same time due to a very high population growth rate, more than twelve million school age children are out of school, doing jobs or just doing nothing. The recent comparisons with the educational situation in China and India show that Pakistan is still far behind than the more thickly populated neighbouring countries, where China with literacy rate of 90% and India with 65% are substantially ahead of Pakistan. The situation of full enrollment which is a far cry is further aggravated by an alarmingly high rate of dropouts. Female literacy rate is abysmall y low, and education of females and rural population at all levels is much underrepresented. As the population is growing at a geometrical rate, the need for more schools and for more and better teachers has risen substantially. With increased focus on the quantitative expansion necessitated by substantial raises in population, the qualitative dimension of teacher education in Pakistan has not received adequate attention, resulting in passing out of scores of teachers from different teacher education institutions with inadequate grip over the content and teaching methodologies. This demands special focus to improve the status of teacher education, by learning through analysis and comparison with education systems that are progressing and delivering well in other countries of the world. As the education system has grown over years, the number of teachers has also shown increases, but it is still far from being adequate, particularly for subjects like science and mathematics. Along with this teacher education programs in Peshawar based teacher education institutions like other similar institutions of Pakistan have some critical deficiencies, which are hampering their effectiveness. Some of those were summarized by Asia and the Pacific Program of Educational Innovation for Development (APIED)(1987)[5], and are reproduced hereunder: i) Short duration of teacher training programs ii) Minimal interaction of trainee teachers at schools iii) Outmoded methods of teaching and evaluation iv) Shortage of audio visual aids and other educational equipment in teacher training institutions. v) Deficiency of supplementary reading material/professional magazines/ research journals vi) Lack of co ordination among training institutions. vii) Absence of incentives for prospective teachers These and similar other deficiencies ask for keen analysis of the local system and for its comparison with better performing systems. The best way to analytically compare any two teacher education systems, as highlighted by Galambos C. Eva, (1986) [6] would be to find out: 1) How the two systems strengthen subject area preparation? 2) How long and adequate is the duration of pre service training of teachers? 3) How theory and practice address better inclusion of the practice of teaching in learning to teach effectively and efficiently? 4) What level of general education would be necessary for all prospective teachers? and 5) What major and minor subjects would be preferred as most supportive for the profession of teaching? In order to survive successfully in the global community, and to bring the indigenous teacher education at the international level it would seem pertinent to critically analyze the local prevailing teacher education programs and to compare them with one of the educationally advanced countries, like that of the United Kingdom, which had laid the foundation of the existing education system in the sub-continent during the colonial rule. Education System in Pakistan Education in Pakistan comes in the domain of the responsibilities of the provinces. However the Federal government is responsible for over viewing Pakistans entire system of education, and is assisted by the provincal ministries and departments of education in all the provinces. The Federal Ministry of Education (MOE) deals with policy-making, curriculum development, accreditation and coordination as an advisory authority, along with the direct administration of the educational institutions situated in and around the capital. Education up to Secondary level is provided by public and private schools, and by Islamic madrasahs, (the faith schools). Education provided at the public/government schools is free of cost, but in the private sector institutions educational expenses are borne by the parents for the purpose of good quality of education. Provincial governments overview and administer all the Universities which are financed by the Federal government through the Higher Education Commission (HEC). Both public and private universities and other higher education institutions are overviewed by HEC for the planning, development and granting of charters. The academic progress of these institutions is coordinated, reviewed and evaluated by the HEC. Primary Education Primary education begins at five years of age and is completed in five years. The medium of instruction at the government schools is either Urdu or the regional language and is English at the private educational institutions. The curriculum revolves around Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, General science, Social studies, Islamic studies, and Physical training. Secondary Education Secondary Education comprises of three stages: a three-year stage of middle level education; other two-year of secondary education; and a further two-year of higher secondary education at intermediate and degree colleges. At the Middle level, (Grades VI to VIII), at ages 11-13, compulsory subjects of Urdu, English, Mathematics, Social Studies and Islamic studies are studied and students are examined on terminal and annual basis. In Grades IX and X at ages 14 and 15 studies are divided into streams of Science and Humanities, and externally examined by the Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education to award Secondary School Certificate on successful completion of ten years of education. However, Intermediate or Higher Secondary Education stream involves studies of Grade XI and XII either in Science or Humanities at the ages of 16 and 17, with external examination and certification by the Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education. Many students in the private sector opt for the examination of (GCE) General Certificate of Education. Madrassahs / Madaris: (Religious Schools) The madaris, operating simultaneously with regular schools are fewer in number as compared to the public and private schools. These provide Islamic education through Urdu and Arabic as languages of Instruction. The key features of the curriculum are the study of the Holy Quran and Hadith (teachings of the prophet Muhammad p.b.u.h). Enrollment and boarding lodging facilities are mostly free of charge, although in some cases they receive grants from the federal government. The primary level institutions called maktabs, are usually attachments of mosques, and provide basic Islamic education focusing on the reading and learning the holy Quran by heart. Secondary school madrasahs deal with the higher level of Islamic education. For better standards of education and in order to integrate the Islamic and formal education systems, the formal schools curriculum of English, mathematics, general science and computer Science are now studied compulsorily at all madaris. Madrasahs are largely self-governing and independent. The official regulatory and certificates/Sanads awarding bodies include ‘Jamea-tus Safiya ‘Wafaq-ul-Madaris, and ‘Tanzeem-ul-Madaris. Different madrasah levels correspond to the formal system, like ‘Tajweed wa Qiraat Ibtidaya is equal to primary schooling, ‘Mutawassita is at par with Middle level, ‘Saniya Aama is equated with Secondary School Certificate, and ‘Saniya Khasa to the Higher Secondary School Certificate, after which the students are eligible to continue higher education at Madrasah or at Universities of the formal sector. Vocational / Technical Secondary Education Nearly all vocational schools run both certificate and diploma programmes. The duration of certificate courses is one year and that of diplomas is two years, in various trades at the secondary level (Grades IX and X) leading to the Secondary School Certificate in technical education; qualifying students to continue their education at Technical Institutes of higher education. Higher Education At the time of partition in 1947 the country had only one University, the Punjab University. Now as of 2008-2009 Pakistan, according to Higher Education Commission of Pakistan (HEC), there are 124 recognized Universities in the country, 68 of these universities are public sector universities and 56 are from the private sector. The guidelines for charter and operations of Universities are issued by the HEC. For standardization, all degree-granting higher education programmes are assessed by HEC. With English as medium of Instruction the Higher Secondary School Certificate, a pass in the entry test, are the essential pre requisites for admission to the study at the university. University Higher Education Stage I: A Bachelors Degree is awarded after two years of formal education and with honours after three years of fulltime study in humanities, sciences or commerce. Four years of formal education is required for Bachelors degrees in engineering, pharmacy computer science, whereas five years are needed for Bachelors in medicine. Stage II: Two years of study after the bachelors degree and one year after the honors bachelors degree leads to the acquisition of Masters Degree Stage III: A minimum of four to five years of study beyond masters degree leads to the doctoral degree. But the duration of study is five to seven years for programmes like the Doctor of Literature (DLitt), Doctor of Science (DSc) and Doctor of Law (LLD). Higher Education (Non University) Polytechnics, technical and commercial institutes and colleges provide non-university higher education comprising programmes of two or three years leading to certificates and diplomas in commercial and technical fields, awarded by Provincial Boards of Technical Education. Teacher Education Programs at Pakistan Primary School Teachers Teacher training at the post secondary level takes place in Regional Institutes of Teacher Education (RITE), and at the Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad for a one-year program known as the Primary Teaching Certificate. In addition, prospective teachers are also prepared at the private sector institutions affiliated or enlisted with universities of public or private sector. Secondary School Teachers Government training institutes of education and different affiliated colleges in private sector train teachers for the secondary school level. They are awarded a Certificate of Teaching (CT) for one year study after passing the examination of Higher Secondary School Certificate. Teacher Education at Universities The prospective teachers aspiring to teach at the higher secondary school level study for one year at the Education Colleges for the Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.) degree, after two-year bachelors of Arts or Science (BA/BSc) education. Teachers possessing B.Ed degree are eligible to teach at the Secondary school level. Masters of Education (M.Ed) is a one year university education after completion of B.Ed. Policy Priorities for Teacher Education All the National Education Policies of Pakistan have accorded great importance to teacher education. The 1959 Commission on National Education stressed upon the necessity of adequate pre service teacher education gave recommendations about functions of teachers in a university and about selection and promotion of teachers. The Education Policy 1972-80 estimated the teacher producing capacity of then existing 12 teacher training colleges and 55 teacher education institutions in Pakistan, to be four thousand which was much less than the estimated demand of three hundred thousand additionally required teachers. It recommended the introduction of Education subject at Secondary, Higher Secondary and Degree level and students qualifying these subjects were suggested to be taken as primary, middle and high level teachers. Relaxation of training requirements for women teachers in special cases was recommended in order to increase the number of women teachers. An academy for teachers and educ ational Administrators training was recommended to be set up. The outdated nature of the teacher training courses was admitted, and their revision was recommended, along with this preparation of model standard textbooks for teacher trainees were advised. The National Education Policy 1979 had vividly valued the significant role of teachers in the effective implementation of the education policies. It was asserted that teacher is the pivot of the entire educational system. In order to promote pre-service teacher education, all the Primary Teacher Training Institutions were planned to be upgraded to Colleges of Elementary Education. An Academy of Higher Education was approved to be established to provide in-service and pre-service training to the College and University teachers. Another Academy for Educational Planning and Management was also established to provide opportunities of training to administrators and supervisors working at different levels of the educational system. This National Education Policy envisaged that every teacher would be expected to undergo one in-service course during five-year cycle of his/her service. A system of National Awards for best teachers was planned to be instituted. Every year ten teachers of vario us levels and categories were planned to receive these awards from the President of Pakistan at national level. Similar awards were planned to be given to selected teachers by the respective provincial governors. The Sixth five Year Plan (1983-88), earmarked sixty million rupees for the teacher education programs to establish additional primary and secondary teacher training institutes and to enhance the training capacity of the existing primary and secondary teacher training institutions, and departments of Education at the Universities. This plan was unique in the sense that it allocated special funds categorically for the teacher education programs. Prior to this the trend of blanket approval was in practice and the badly needed requisite improvement in the standard of teachers could not be facilitated. The incremental allocation, as given in the following table reflected the increased importance accorded to teacher education. Table: 1.1 The Sixth Five Year Plans (1983-1988) Allocations for Teacher Education Year Recurring Expenditure Developmental Expenditure (in million rupees) 1983-84 12 16 1984-85 14 20 1985-86 18 27 1986-87 20 32 1987-88 24 38 Total 88 133 The Seventh Five-Year Plan (1988-93) identified a number of shortcomings in the teacher training programs, which included the irrelevancy of curriculum for PTC and CT; the inadequacy of the training duration, of in service training, and lack of good career prospects due to which good students were not attracted to the profession of teaching. It was proposed to improve the efficiency of teachers by gradually raising the minimum qualification, revitalizing the teacher training programmes, continuous in-service education and providing better career proposals to teachers. The Ninth Five-Year Plan focused upon the strengthening of one hundred and twenty then available teacher training institutes. The high priority attached to the promotion and facilitation of teacher education as envisaged in the above mentioned policies and plans spoke of the importance accorded to teacher education by all the governments of Pakistan. Entry Qualification The requisite entry qualifications into the teaching profession at different levels are as follows: a) Primary Level (I-V) : Matriculation + one year teaching certificate (PTC) b) Middle Level (VI-VIII) : Intermediate + one year teaching certificate (CT) and, c) Secondary Level (IX-X) : B.A/B.Sc + one year Bachelor of Edu. degree course/B.Ed Non Formal Teacher Education Allama Iqbal Open University (AIOU) is offering non formal teacher training courses for both male and female students living in the far away areas of the country. These programs are substantially contributing to the provision of trained teachers. United Kingdoms System of Education In Britain compulsory schooling takes place between the ages of five and sixteen. The over riding objectives of the governments education policies are to raise standards at all levels of ability, increase parental choice, make further and higher education more widely accessible and more responsive to the needs of the economy, and to achieve the best possible returns from the resources invested in the education service. (Britain 1990) [7] Parents are legally bound to ensure that their children aged five to sixteen regularly receive efficient full time education. Most students receive free education financed from public funds, and a small proportion attends private schools independent of public financial support. Pupils follow a common curriculum leading to the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) and Vocational Certificate of Secondary Education (VCSE). Students are allowed to select a number of GCSEs, VCSEs as per their personal preferences and aptitudes. Quite a few sch ools cater for the educational needs of the students for additional two years till they sit for the Advanced Level of General Certificate of Education. (GCE A Levels) Primary and Secondary Schools Ninety percent of boys and girls are taught together in most primary schools. Most independent/private fee-charging schools are mixed at the primary level and single-gender at the secondary level. These schools are registered with, and inspected by the government and governed by an independent board. No fees are charged in government schools, which are governed by the Local Education Authorities (LEA). There is no statutory requirement to provide education for the under-fives, but nursery education is well established now. Compulsory education begins at five at infant schools and at seven they go to junior/primary schools. The average age of passing out from primary school and entry into secondary school is eleven years. Schools are organized in a number of ways including secondary schools with age range, from 11 to 18; middle schools whose students move on to senior comprehensive schools at the age of 12 to 16. Tertiary colleges offer a full range of vocational and academic courses for students over 16. Examinations At the completion of the secondary education at UK, at the age of sixteen, secondary school students appear for the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE). This examination in order to raise the standard of performance has replaced General Certificate of Education (GCE), Ordinary Level (O Level), and the Certificate of Secondary Education (CSE) since 1988. GCSE examination is taken after five years of Secondary Education and evaluated at a seven point scale of grades, A to G. The GCSE Advanced level (A Level) examination is taken after two years of further study. Its successful completion qualifies the student for induction into universities. Educational Standards Her Majestys inspectors report to ministers on the quality of education provided at all schools colleges and universities. They also advise the Local Education Authorities (LEA) and the government, and publish the reports. LEAs also employ inspectors or advisers to gu Comparison of Teacher Education Programmes in Pakistan UK Comparison of Teacher Education Programmes in Pakistan UK Comparative Analysis of Teacher Education Programmes in Pakistan UK CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Background of the Study The overall development status of every country depends upon the standard of education prevalent across that country. It is an era of knowledge based economies, and countries failing in education find it hard to catch up with the developed world. In other words a countrys economic and cultural future as well as its scientific and technological growth owe to the academic standards being maintained by the teachers in its educational institutions. Thus teachers contributions are well acknowledged as builders of the nation and molders of personalities. In fact the key player of every educational system is the teacher, who is considered the backbone of the entire system all over the world, and a pivot around which the whole education system revolves. Teacher is the major implementer of all educational reforms at the grass root level. Teaching without doubt is considered one of the very noble professions. It offers constant intellectual challenges, acknowledgement, respect in the society a nd above all the opportunity to mould the personalities of a big majority of youth. This centrality qualifies teachers to be the crucial position holders in creating impact on all aspects of students personalities. They are the teachers who bring about positive behavioural changes in students by grooming and developing their personalities. That is why it is necessary that they should be adequately equipped with skills and abilities that would enable them to play an effective role in human development both from national and global perspectives. The Indian Education Commission 1964-66, as observed by Sheikh M.A (1998)[1] had ranked the quality and competence of the teachers as the most important factor determining the quality of education significantly contributing to the national development. Nothing is more important than securing a sufficient supply of high quality recruits to the teaching profession, providing them with the best possible professional preparation and creating satisfactory conditions of work in which they can be fully effective.† However, this central position, demands great care and attention in the education and training of teachers, who develop and enable students meet effectively the challenges of present and future. Ascertaining the effectiveness of these trainings asks for the analysis of teacher education programs in the social context of every country socio economic, cultural and historic factors substantially influence its nature and value. Concept of Teacher Education Teacher education is a discipline and sub sector of education with its distinct pre service and in service forms. It equips prospective and in service teachers with information, knowledge and pedagogical skills to help reform their attitudes and behaviour to the profession of education. The key objective is to facilitate the transfer of knowledge (cognitive, affective and psychomotor) to students and to build their character and personalities. In other words teacher education refers to the policies and procedures designed to equip teachers with the knowledge, attitudes, behaviours and skills they require to perform their tasks effectively in the school and classroom. (Wikipedia, 09) [2] According to Sheikh M.A (1998), teacher education encompasses acquiring all that knowledge, skills and abilities which are relevant to the life of a â€Å"teacher as a teacher† It reshapes the attitudes, remodels the habits, and develops the personalities of teachers. Need for Teacher Education Teachers general education and professional training both require utmost care and attention, as whatever is acquired by them is transferred to their students with high multiple effects. The present has witnessed and is still experiencing a rapidly but positively changing scenario of processes and procedures of teacher training. New innovative methods are continuously being added to the already practiced traditional pedagogical techniques. Acquainting with these developments to the point of mastery is needed for the promotion and maintenance of good teaching learning standards. Good quality teacher education about these key elements paves the way of the development of the education system in the long run. Teachers are the layers of the foundations of future citizens, hence need to be educated with futuristic perspective, so that they can develop the personalities of their students, not only as per present requirements but also for the years to come, accommodating the new trends from the global outlook. This is very important as teacher is one of the key agents of change in all communities and a service provider as per needs of the future. Changes are taking place not only at national but also at international level. With every passing day distances are shrinking and communities are coming closer to each other affecting each others practices of life. Purpose of Teacher Education The purpose of teacher education primarily is to equip prospective teachers not only with suitable aptitudes for teaching but also with appropriate skills and abilities required to make them effective and efficient professionals. Through different theoretical and practical activities, they are helped to understand not only the philosophical, psychological, and sociological basis of teaching, but also the relationship of education with the society and its values through teaching and learning processes. The process of formal teacher education can help the prospective teachers minimize the troubles and save the students from the wastages of hit and trial. Appropriately rendered teacher education, provides ample opportunities to would be teachers to understand the nature of teaching; to envisage responsibilities of a teacher; to discover that to be a teacher is much more than learning by heart the philosophies and theories of learning; and to comprehend the practical implications of the pedagogical strategies. It is learnt that the profession of teaching is in fact facilitating the acquisition and retention of knowledge, values, skills and right attitudes for successful life that can initiate and promote positive changes in the society. Keeping this in view teacher education, through teacher-preparatory years focuses on the development of abilities and skills that would not only make them capable teachers but will enable them to discharge duties effectively, take initiatives, motivate students and facilitate learning. With the belief that practice makes one perfect, students during teacher education phase are given the opportunity to teach or instruct and receive constant guidance and encouragement during practical delivery, in order to strengthen good habits and to overcome the pedagogical weaknesses. Phases of Teacher Education Farrant, J. S. (1990)[3], observed that since the dawn of the twenty first century teacher education in developed countries remained divided into three phases: 1) Initial Teacher Education 2) Induction 3) Continuing Teacher Education 1) Initial teacher training / education This education pertains to the training that is undertaken before formally starting the teaching profession. It is a pre-service course done before entering the classroom as a fully responsible teacher. It is usually provided in education colleges and education departments of universities where the student teachers are introduced to the knowledge and skills needed to be professional teachers. The students are formally taught the important components of this profession including aims of education, history of education, perspectives of education, modern approaches to learning, assessment and evaluation of learning and basics of curriculum development, educational psychology, philosophy and pedagogy. It also provides first hand experience of the practical aspects of the teaching profession. It usually takes a year or so and culminates into a certificate or a degree. 2) Induction This informal phase begins when a student teacher changes from being a part time, visiting student teacher to a full time adequately responsible professional. Basically induction refers to the process of providing on the job guidance and support to the teachers during the first few months of teaching or the first year of the professional career. In countries like UK, during induction the teacher is on probation, and receives guidance and supervision formally by the teacher-tutor, and informally from all other colleagues head teacher. The work load during this phase of education is reduced in order to provide time and opportunity for guidance, reflection and grooming. This is a transitional phase from being a student to being a full time teacher. 3) Teachers continuous professional development It is an in-service process for professional refinement of practicing teachers. It is a life long process in which efforts are made to improve and polish up the potentials of the teachers. It includes professional trainings like workshops, short courses and seminars. This is usually formally arranged by good schools or can be self directed through reading of professional books, discussions with colleagues, benefiting from on line courses, or attending training workshops, conferences, and symposiums. With the passage of time, all institutions have started to value in service training of teachers more and more; and are regularly arranging training programs of different durations for their teachers. These trainings are sometimes general in nature for the improvement of the overall teaching methodologies, and sometimes focused on improving specific subject-teaching skills, enabling teachers master innovative concepts recently incorporated in the existing curriculum. Such in service trainings are usually taken up in anticipation for the expected promotions. Usefulness of Comparing Teacher Education Systems Sodhi (1993)[4] documented, â€Å"Comparative education is a popular educational venture and is considered very useful in countries like USA, UK, Russia and even India. It is considered so, as education has been recognized an investment for development of human resources, which is in fact the development of human capital formation. All people engaged in the field of education have much to learn from the policies and educational practices of other lands. Apparently the educational system of a country grows out of the historical background, economic and social conditions, geographical features and political systems and no country is in a position to totally adopt the educational patterns of another country as such. But lessons can be learnt, and successful practices can be adopted to meet the needs from the angle it looks upon them.† With advancement in technology and with communication explosion, the geographical distances are shrinking and people are coming closer to each other. The similarities caused by science and technology are overpowering the differences resulting from cultural diversities. The fact suggested by increasing similarities is that different nations of the worldwhich looks like a global village now, can learn a lot from each others experiences and progress to save time, energy and resources required for the ‘try and learn activities. The knowledge about the successes and failures of other systems can be very awakening and beneficial in comprehending ones own educational problems. The backwardness or advancement of ones own system can be ascertained only through analytical comparison, particularly with those of the economically and educationally advanced countries. In spite of increased investment in education sector, Pakistan has not yet achieved its target of UPE (Universal Primary Education) set in 1960 that was to be achieved by 1980. Analysis of the educational status of Pakistan reveals that a reasonable progress has been made by it since independence. At that time not even a million students were studying in schools, whereas now more than twelve million children are in schools. But at the same time due to a very high population growth rate, more than twelve million school age children are out of school, doing jobs or just doing nothing. The recent comparisons with the educational situation in China and India show that Pakistan is still far behind than the more thickly populated neighbouring countries, where China with literacy rate of 90% and India with 65% are substantially ahead of Pakistan. The situation of full enrollment which is a far cry is further aggravated by an alarmingly high rate of dropouts. Female literacy rate is abysmall y low, and education of females and rural population at all levels is much underrepresented. As the population is growing at a geometrical rate, the need for more schools and for more and better teachers has risen substantially. With increased focus on the quantitative expansion necessitated by substantial raises in population, the qualitative dimension of teacher education in Pakistan has not received adequate attention, resulting in passing out of scores of teachers from different teacher education institutions with inadequate grip over the content and teaching methodologies. This demands special focus to improve the status of teacher education, by learning through analysis and comparison with education systems that are progressing and delivering well in other countries of the world. As the education system has grown over years, the number of teachers has also shown increases, but it is still far from being adequate, particularly for subjects like science and mathematics. Along with this teacher education programs in Peshawar based teacher education institutions like other similar institutions of Pakistan have some critical deficiencies, which are hampering their effectiveness. Some of those were summarized by Asia and the Pacific Program of Educational Innovation for Development (APIED)(1987)[5], and are reproduced hereunder: i) Short duration of teacher training programs ii) Minimal interaction of trainee teachers at schools iii) Outmoded methods of teaching and evaluation iv) Shortage of audio visual aids and other educational equipment in teacher training institutions. v) Deficiency of supplementary reading material/professional magazines/ research journals vi) Lack of co ordination among training institutions. vii) Absence of incentives for prospective teachers These and similar other deficiencies ask for keen analysis of the local system and for its comparison with better performing systems. The best way to analytically compare any two teacher education systems, as highlighted by Galambos C. Eva, (1986) [6] would be to find out: 1) How the two systems strengthen subject area preparation? 2) How long and adequate is the duration of pre service training of teachers? 3) How theory and practice address better inclusion of the practice of teaching in learning to teach effectively and efficiently? 4) What level of general education would be necessary for all prospective teachers? and 5) What major and minor subjects would be preferred as most supportive for the profession of teaching? In order to survive successfully in the global community, and to bring the indigenous teacher education at the international level it would seem pertinent to critically analyze the local prevailing teacher education programs and to compare them with one of the educationally advanced countries, like that of the United Kingdom, which had laid the foundation of the existing education system in the sub-continent during the colonial rule. Education System in Pakistan Education in Pakistan comes in the domain of the responsibilities of the provinces. However the Federal government is responsible for over viewing Pakistans entire system of education, and is assisted by the provincal ministries and departments of education in all the provinces. The Federal Ministry of Education (MOE) deals with policy-making, curriculum development, accreditation and coordination as an advisory authority, along with the direct administration of the educational institutions situated in and around the capital. Education up to Secondary level is provided by public and private schools, and by Islamic madrasahs, (the faith schools). Education provided at the public/government schools is free of cost, but in the private sector institutions educational expenses are borne by the parents for the purpose of good quality of education. Provincial governments overview and administer all the Universities which are financed by the Federal government through the Higher Education Commission (HEC). Both public and private universities and other higher education institutions are overviewed by HEC for the planning, development and granting of charters. The academic progress of these institutions is coordinated, reviewed and evaluated by the HEC. Primary Education Primary education begins at five years of age and is completed in five years. The medium of instruction at the government schools is either Urdu or the regional language and is English at the private educational institutions. The curriculum revolves around Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, General science, Social studies, Islamic studies, and Physical training. Secondary Education Secondary Education comprises of three stages: a three-year stage of middle level education; other two-year of secondary education; and a further two-year of higher secondary education at intermediate and degree colleges. At the Middle level, (Grades VI to VIII), at ages 11-13, compulsory subjects of Urdu, English, Mathematics, Social Studies and Islamic studies are studied and students are examined on terminal and annual basis. In Grades IX and X at ages 14 and 15 studies are divided into streams of Science and Humanities, and externally examined by the Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education to award Secondary School Certificate on successful completion of ten years of education. However, Intermediate or Higher Secondary Education stream involves studies of Grade XI and XII either in Science or Humanities at the ages of 16 and 17, with external examination and certification by the Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education. Many students in the private sector opt for the examination of (GCE) General Certificate of Education. Madrassahs / Madaris: (Religious Schools) The madaris, operating simultaneously with regular schools are fewer in number as compared to the public and private schools. These provide Islamic education through Urdu and Arabic as languages of Instruction. The key features of the curriculum are the study of the Holy Quran and Hadith (teachings of the prophet Muhammad p.b.u.h). Enrollment and boarding lodging facilities are mostly free of charge, although in some cases they receive grants from the federal government. The primary level institutions called maktabs, are usually attachments of mosques, and provide basic Islamic education focusing on the reading and learning the holy Quran by heart. Secondary school madrasahs deal with the higher level of Islamic education. For better standards of education and in order to integrate the Islamic and formal education systems, the formal schools curriculum of English, mathematics, general science and computer Science are now studied compulsorily at all madaris. Madrasahs are largely self-governing and independent. The official regulatory and certificates/Sanads awarding bodies include ‘Jamea-tus Safiya ‘Wafaq-ul-Madaris, and ‘Tanzeem-ul-Madaris. Different madrasah levels correspond to the formal system, like ‘Tajweed wa Qiraat Ibtidaya is equal to primary schooling, ‘Mutawassita is at par with Middle level, ‘Saniya Aama is equated with Secondary School Certificate, and ‘Saniya Khasa to the Higher Secondary School Certificate, after which the students are eligible to continue higher education at Madrasah or at Universities of the formal sector. Vocational / Technical Secondary Education Nearly all vocational schools run both certificate and diploma programmes. The duration of certificate courses is one year and that of diplomas is two years, in various trades at the secondary level (Grades IX and X) leading to the Secondary School Certificate in technical education; qualifying students to continue their education at Technical Institutes of higher education. Higher Education At the time of partition in 1947 the country had only one University, the Punjab University. Now as of 2008-2009 Pakistan, according to Higher Education Commission of Pakistan (HEC), there are 124 recognized Universities in the country, 68 of these universities are public sector universities and 56 are from the private sector. The guidelines for charter and operations of Universities are issued by the HEC. For standardization, all degree-granting higher education programmes are assessed by HEC. With English as medium of Instruction the Higher Secondary School Certificate, a pass in the entry test, are the essential pre requisites for admission to the study at the university. University Higher Education Stage I: A Bachelors Degree is awarded after two years of formal education and with honours after three years of fulltime study in humanities, sciences or commerce. Four years of formal education is required for Bachelors degrees in engineering, pharmacy computer science, whereas five years are needed for Bachelors in medicine. Stage II: Two years of study after the bachelors degree and one year after the honors bachelors degree leads to the acquisition of Masters Degree Stage III: A minimum of four to five years of study beyond masters degree leads to the doctoral degree. But the duration of study is five to seven years for programmes like the Doctor of Literature (DLitt), Doctor of Science (DSc) and Doctor of Law (LLD). Higher Education (Non University) Polytechnics, technical and commercial institutes and colleges provide non-university higher education comprising programmes of two or three years leading to certificates and diplomas in commercial and technical fields, awarded by Provincial Boards of Technical Education. Teacher Education Programs at Pakistan Primary School Teachers Teacher training at the post secondary level takes place in Regional Institutes of Teacher Education (RITE), and at the Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad for a one-year program known as the Primary Teaching Certificate. In addition, prospective teachers are also prepared at the private sector institutions affiliated or enlisted with universities of public or private sector. Secondary School Teachers Government training institutes of education and different affiliated colleges in private sector train teachers for the secondary school level. They are awarded a Certificate of Teaching (CT) for one year study after passing the examination of Higher Secondary School Certificate. Teacher Education at Universities The prospective teachers aspiring to teach at the higher secondary school level study for one year at the Education Colleges for the Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.) degree, after two-year bachelors of Arts or Science (BA/BSc) education. Teachers possessing B.Ed degree are eligible to teach at the Secondary school level. Masters of Education (M.Ed) is a one year university education after completion of B.Ed. Policy Priorities for Teacher Education All the National Education Policies of Pakistan have accorded great importance to teacher education. The 1959 Commission on National Education stressed upon the necessity of adequate pre service teacher education gave recommendations about functions of teachers in a university and about selection and promotion of teachers. The Education Policy 1972-80 estimated the teacher producing capacity of then existing 12 teacher training colleges and 55 teacher education institutions in Pakistan, to be four thousand which was much less than the estimated demand of three hundred thousand additionally required teachers. It recommended the introduction of Education subject at Secondary, Higher Secondary and Degree level and students qualifying these subjects were suggested to be taken as primary, middle and high level teachers. Relaxation of training requirements for women teachers in special cases was recommended in order to increase the number of women teachers. An academy for teachers and educ ational Administrators training was recommended to be set up. The outdated nature of the teacher training courses was admitted, and their revision was recommended, along with this preparation of model standard textbooks for teacher trainees were advised. The National Education Policy 1979 had vividly valued the significant role of teachers in the effective implementation of the education policies. It was asserted that teacher is the pivot of the entire educational system. In order to promote pre-service teacher education, all the Primary Teacher Training Institutions were planned to be upgraded to Colleges of Elementary Education. An Academy of Higher Education was approved to be established to provide in-service and pre-service training to the College and University teachers. Another Academy for Educational Planning and Management was also established to provide opportunities of training to administrators and supervisors working at different levels of the educational system. This National Education Policy envisaged that every teacher would be expected to undergo one in-service course during five-year cycle of his/her service. A system of National Awards for best teachers was planned to be instituted. Every year ten teachers of vario us levels and categories were planned to receive these awards from the President of Pakistan at national level. Similar awards were planned to be given to selected teachers by the respective provincial governors. The Sixth five Year Plan (1983-88), earmarked sixty million rupees for the teacher education programs to establish additional primary and secondary teacher training institutes and to enhance the training capacity of the existing primary and secondary teacher training institutions, and departments of Education at the Universities. This plan was unique in the sense that it allocated special funds categorically for the teacher education programs. Prior to this the trend of blanket approval was in practice and the badly needed requisite improvement in the standard of teachers could not be facilitated. The incremental allocation, as given in the following table reflected the increased importance accorded to teacher education. Table: 1.1 The Sixth Five Year Plans (1983-1988) Allocations for Teacher Education Year Recurring Expenditure Developmental Expenditure (in million rupees) 1983-84 12 16 1984-85 14 20 1985-86 18 27 1986-87 20 32 1987-88 24 38 Total 88 133 The Seventh Five-Year Plan (1988-93) identified a number of shortcomings in the teacher training programs, which included the irrelevancy of curriculum for PTC and CT; the inadequacy of the training duration, of in service training, and lack of good career prospects due to which good students were not attracted to the profession of teaching. It was proposed to improve the efficiency of teachers by gradually raising the minimum qualification, revitalizing the teacher training programmes, continuous in-service education and providing better career proposals to teachers. The Ninth Five-Year Plan focused upon the strengthening of one hundred and twenty then available teacher training institutes. The high priority attached to the promotion and facilitation of teacher education as envisaged in the above mentioned policies and plans spoke of the importance accorded to teacher education by all the governments of Pakistan. Entry Qualification The requisite entry qualifications into the teaching profession at different levels are as follows: a) Primary Level (I-V) : Matriculation + one year teaching certificate (PTC) b) Middle Level (VI-VIII) : Intermediate + one year teaching certificate (CT) and, c) Secondary Level (IX-X) : B.A/B.Sc + one year Bachelor of Edu. degree course/B.Ed Non Formal Teacher Education Allama Iqbal Open University (AIOU) is offering non formal teacher training courses for both male and female students living in the far away areas of the country. These programs are substantially contributing to the provision of trained teachers. United Kingdoms System of Education In Britain compulsory schooling takes place between the ages of five and sixteen. The over riding objectives of the governments education policies are to raise standards at all levels of ability, increase parental choice, make further and higher education more widely accessible and more responsive to the needs of the economy, and to achieve the best possible returns from the resources invested in the education service. (Britain 1990) [7] Parents are legally bound to ensure that their children aged five to sixteen regularly receive efficient full time education. Most students receive free education financed from public funds, and a small proportion attends private schools independent of public financial support. Pupils follow a common curriculum leading to the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) and Vocational Certificate of Secondary Education (VCSE). Students are allowed to select a number of GCSEs, VCSEs as per their personal preferences and aptitudes. Quite a few sch ools cater for the educational needs of the students for additional two years till they sit for the Advanced Level of General Certificate of Education. (GCE A Levels) Primary and Secondary Schools Ninety percent of boys and girls are taught together in most primary schools. Most independent/private fee-charging schools are mixed at the primary level and single-gender at the secondary level. These schools are registered with, and inspected by the government and governed by an independent board. No fees are charged in government schools, which are governed by the Local Education Authorities (LEA). There is no statutory requirement to provide education for the under-fives, but nursery education is well established now. Compulsory education begins at five at infant schools and at seven they go to junior/primary schools. The average age of passing out from primary school and entry into secondary school is eleven years. Schools are organized in a number of ways including secondary schools with age range, from 11 to 18; middle schools whose students move on to senior comprehensive schools at the age of 12 to 16. Tertiary colleges offer a full range of vocational and academic courses for students over 16. Examinations At the completion of the secondary education at UK, at the age of sixteen, secondary school students appear for the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE). This examination in order to raise the standard of performance has replaced General Certificate of Education (GCE), Ordinary Level (O Level), and the Certificate of Secondary Education (CSE) since 1988. GCSE examination is taken after five years of Secondary Education and evaluated at a seven point scale of grades, A to G. The GCSE Advanced level (A Level) examination is taken after two years of further study. Its successful completion qualifies the student for induction into universities. Educational Standards Her Majestys inspectors report to ministers on the quality of education provided at all schools colleges and universities. They also advise the Local Education Authorities (LEA) and the government, and publish the reports. LEAs also employ inspectors or advisers to gu